The study was conducted in Wakkerstroom, a small town in the Mpumalanga province bordering the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, which is part of the Dr Pixley Ka Isaka Seme (DPKIS) Local Municipality. The town was established in 1859 (Theal 2010), occupies an area of 87.68 square kilometres (km²) and has a population of approximately 6800 residents (DPKIS Local Municipality IDP 2011). The primary industry is maize, sheep and cattle farming which are conducted at commercial and subsistence levels. The town is one of the oldest towns in the region, and is subsequently rich in heritage, both natural and cultural. The area is home to the Wakkerstroom Wetland Reserve (commonly known as the Vlei) which has a natural heritage status and provides habitats for numerous bird species. The grasslands are also protected by The National Environmental Management Biodiversity Act (Act No. 10 of 2004). The town is inhabited by people of diverse heritage, including the Ndebele, Zulu, Afrikaaner, British and their descendants. There are many farming families (e.g. Uys, Oosthuizen and Greyling) which have been on the same land for seven generations, making it a suitable site for heritage perception exploration (Gardiner 2017). The town consists of a ‘township’ and ‘town’ area as a result of segregation during the Apartheid era. The township area is known as Esizameleni, and comprises approximately 1650 Ndebele and Zulu households (DPKIS Local Municipality IDP 2011). This area is primarily characterised by underdevelopment, unemployment, low education levels and low access to adequate sanitation (Jürgens et al. 2013; Kalichman & Simbayi 2003; Salo 2003; Wood et al. 2010). The town area conversely displays a higher level of development, with a larger number of white Afrikaaner inhabitants (StatsSA 2011). Esizameleni is about 4 km from the centre of the town.

This study was divided into three parts: (1) a desktop study to identify the heritage resources; (2) a stakeholder map created to identify groups of stakeholders and the structure of the community and (3) interviews with stakeholders to assess their perceptions that were used to develop management guidelines for conservation. The desktop study used a variety of sources, including the Wakkerstroom official website (https://www.wakkerstroom.co.za/) and South African History Online (https://www.sahistory.org.za/) to obtain baseline information about cultural and natural heritage resources in the town. The register of the South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA Declared Sites 2020) was also consulted for a list of declared sites. Publications from the town including ‘Wakkerstroom: Jewel of Mpumalanga’ (Hofmeyer, Smith & Smith 2009) as well as the ‘Wakkerstroom; Bird and Nature Guide’ (Tarboton 2004) were used to identify sites of heritage importance. Information relating to the location, history and the known uses of the resources was gathered in order to understand the relevance of the heritage resources and aspects identified. A publication titled ‘Wakkerstroom: A Conservation Study’ (Peters 1995) was also consulted for information on the architecture in the town. A table was constructed summarising the resources identified, the type of resource and the importance or value attributed to the resource.

In order to identify stakeholders who should be interviewed, a stakeholder map was developed with the help of managers of conservation organisations in the town by identifying users of the resources in the communities who would be affected by, or be involved in, changes in the condition of the resources, as well as any management practices implemented. Managers responsible for the protection and monitoring of heritage resources were also identified through various organisations assigned with the task of management of resources in the town. The identified stakeholders were then grouped according to categories that would represent the structure of the community of Wakkerstroom, and ensure that stakeholder groups were adequately represented where resource conservation is concerned according to the best practice of stakeholder engagement as suggested by Hare and Pahl-Wostl (2002). Categories were developed according to where stakeholders lived, and where possible, the economic and organisational role of stakeholders in the community. A stakeholder map was used to document the stakeholders identified and the strength of stakeholder linkages in relation to the main management body which was the DPKIS Local Municipality. This, in conjunction with subsequent interview data also enabled assessment of roles in resource protection, influence in resource conservation and resource-conservation plan execution (Varvasovszky & Brugha 2000).

Two semi-structured interview questionnaires were used because they allowed for more open-ended questions and the collection of a wider range of information. One questionnaire was used for interviews with community members including business owners, residents from the town and Esizameleni areas of Wakkerstroom. Interviews were conducted in English and isiZulu according to the choice of the participant. The interviews addressed questions related to demographic information, the understanding of heritage and heritage values, identification of resources valued and the reasons for the perceived importance. Use of the resources and participation in heritage activities were also investigated including the contribution of participants to the protection of these resources. Sources of information regarding heritage resource aspects and threats perceived to resources were also addressed by the interview questions.

The second interview questionnaire was addressed to the caretakers and managers of organisations tasked with the preservation of heritage resources in the town in order to gather more information from these stakeholders of the town region regarding resource management. Organisations included Birdlife South Africa, Working on Fire and the Wakkerstroom Natural Heritage Association (WNHA). The second interview instrument was similar to the first, differing only in the addition of questions related to management actions. This was in order to establish current management practices and to use the information gathered in developing suggestions for future management plans.

In both the town and township areas, key informants were initially identified and then snowball sampling was used as described by Sadler et al. (2010). In the town area, a total of 15 people were interviewed (including three managers of the aforementioned conservation organisations), whilst 27 people were interviewed from the township area. Interviews were 30 min long; interviews people in the town area took place at a local hotel restaurant, and interviews in the township were conducted at participant households. A classical ‘stakeholder map’ as defined in the literature was very difficult to achieve in this small village, as many people, especially those in the town, played multiple roles. They were simultaneously owners of businesses, chair-people of volunteer organisations and part-time residents. The downside of this may be offset by the fact that many people understood the need for conservation as they were embedded in the activities. The municipality was also contacted for interviews as it was important that they be interviewed; however, they did not respond. Officials in the municipality (e.g. town manager, mayor and chief financial officer) were all struggling with financial compliance in order to prevent intervention by the authorities and had no interest in service delivery or in the conservation of the natural and heritage resources (Municipal Money Profile: Dr Pixley Ka Isaka Seme 2020).

To analyse the data, content analysis was carried out – a method identified to be most effective in describing the qualitative data gathered in this study. Content analysis also lends itself to a quantitative description of the data. Responses from town and township groups of stakeholders were transcribed into two Microsoft Excel spreadsheets. Where applicable, categories were developed with similar themes or answers falling under the same category. Responses were coded according to categories and expressed as percentages within and between categories. Bar graphs were produced for each question, in each area (town or township). Bar graphs of demographic data (average age of participants, education levels and average time participants have lived in the town) were also produced. No statistical tests were conducted on these data as sample sizes were too small.

Natural and cultural heritage resources, both intangible and tangible, were identified. Buildings and natural features in the environment were identified (Table 1). Significance was mainly attributed to architectural quality preserved over time and the history of the buildings conferring cultural value.

Three structures listed under national monument status are located in the town. One of these is the Paul Kruger Bridge, referred to as ‘The Old Road Bridge’, Marthinus Wesselstroom, under the SAHRA monuments register. The bridge is a steel structure spanning 12.2 metres (m) in length built with material imported from Europe (Peters et al. 2001), and is archived under national monument status (Site reference: 9/2/279/0006), declared as a provincial heritage site under SAHRA and listed under grade II heritage protection (Resources significant within the context of a province – administered by the relevant Provincial Heritage Authority [PHRA]) (SAHRA Declared Sites 2020).

The second structure is the Old Court House building (Old Magistrates Office, Engelbrecht Street, Wakkerstroom) which dates back to 1897. Similar to the Paul Kruger Bridge, the building is archived under national monument status. The building is also declared under grade II provincial heritage protection as a Provincial Heritage Site (site reference 9/2/279/0002) (SAHRA Declared Sites 2020). The third structure is the St Mark’s Anglican Church, also known as the Old Apostolic Church of Africa, dating back to the 1870s. The building, gazetted in 1982, is the third building in the town archived under national monument status and currently declared as a grade II, provincial heritage site (Site reference: 9/2/279/0006-001). The building was erected following the Anglo-Boer War, serving as a residence for an officer who led the British army (South African Heritage Resources Information Systems n.d.). The church is located on Erf 82 Kerk Street, it is privately owned, but local Anglicans still conduct services in the church.

The Wakkerstroom Wetland is one of the most notable natural heritage resources mentioned in the literature on the town. The wetland measures about 1000 hectares (ha) (Begg 1989) and is located at the upper reaches of the Tugela catchment. The wetland does not have a high floral diversity (Kotze, Breen & Klug 1994) but is dominated by a dense growth of Carex acutiformis (Ehrh.), Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. Ex Steud. and Typha capensis (Rohrb.) (Joubert & Ellery 2013). This wetland is however important as a habitat, and a nesting and foraging area for rare birds such as the White-winged Flufftail (Sarothrura ayresi) (Tarboton 2004), as well as the Grey crowned Crane (Balearica regulorum), both of which are some of the rarest birds in Africa (Khan 2010; Oellermann, Darroch & Klug 1994; Reid et al. 2005). The wetland attracts multiple bird species from around the world, including migratory birds from Eurasia and intra-African migrants (Joubert & Ellery 2013). Invertebrate species are well represented, as well as species of fresh-water otters (including the Spotted-necked Otter [Lutra maculicollis]) (Wakkerstroom Bird Club 2016; Zhang et al. 2011).

In addition, the Wakkerstroom vlei is also used as a grazing site for cattle by local farmers (Kotze 2013). Harvesting of plants for medicinal purposes as well as water supply are valued services provided by the vlei. The surrounding grasslands and forests are highly diverse with the species list tally currently at 1300 and further work is under progress (SANBI 2020a).

Stakeholders identified included the organisations tasked with the conservation and management of heritage resources in the town of Wakkerstroom. The WNHA together with the Working on Fire programme and BirdLife SA are the main organisations tasked with resource conservation. These organisations mainly focus on the protection of natural heritage resources in the town, including bird and bird habitat conservation, wetland ecosystem protection and fire control in the wetland and grassland areas. These organisations are part of the stakeholders of the heritage resources identified (Figure 1). Although, they are also, part of the town community (as explained earlier), the leaders of these organisations were interviewed separately as they served a management function abrogated by the municipality.

Two main stakeholder groups were identified: the Esizameleni township and the town areas of Wakkerstroom. In the town region, stakeholders included businessmen, residents and tourist stakeholder groups because of the role they played as dominant stakeholder subgroups within the town area. Tourists were included because of the role tourism plays in motivating conservation of the town. These stakeholder groups interact directly with resources, are involved in, impacted and affected by, resource management and conservation in the town, and subsequently have resource management and conservation interests.

In the township area of Esizameleni, the low levels of tourism activity, business operations and interactions with resource conservation activities in Wakkerstroom resulted in no clear subgroups being identified. One group of stakeholders was therefore formed and labelled as ‘Residents’. Establishing a ‘business people’ subgroup similar to that of the town area could not take place in the township stakeholder group. This is because, although there are individuals that manage businesses such as spazas and shebeens in the township, the ownership, longevity and location of these businesses change frequently, making it difficult to identify actors as stakeholder subgroups. A ‘Residents’ group was therefore perceived as a representative stakeholder grouping for the purpose of assessing conservation linkages, roles and influence in resource conservation and management.

The DPKIS Local Municipality is included as the main actor in management of resources in the town. The municipality, through its role as government, should serve as the main body to which all other stakeholders are directly or indirectly linked. According to interviews conducted with managers of conservation organisations in Wakkerstroom, people employed by the municipality in the town can, however, be described as relatively inactive, paying little attention to heritage resource conservation in the way of financing and supporting town conservation activities. This leaves the bulk of management to town non-governmental organisations such the WNHA and volunteer work by members of the community, despite the management responsibility of the municipality, by virtue of it being elected.

The highest level of education amongst participants of the Esizameleni township was found to be a high school qualification (Figure 2a) in contrast to the town area where the highest level of education reported amongst participants reached postgraduate degree levels, and all participants had some level of education (Figure 2b). Township participants linked heritage definitions mainly to the theme of ‘identity’ with references to cultural and traditional identities, followed by ‘inheritance’ alluding to customs and traditional practices passed down through generations (Figure 3a). Town participants associated heritage mainly with the theme of ‘inheritance’ which denoted the passing down of tangible resources (e.g. natural resources, farms or buildings), generationally (Figure 3b). Township participants identified threats to heritage under the category of ‘people and livestock’ (livestock referring to the farming practices associated with keeping livestock) including the negative attitudes towards conservation by town participants as the greatest threats to heritage resources (Figure 4a). Town participants identified mining as the top threat to natural heritage resources (the wetland) followed by concerns about farming practices related to the number of cattle grazing in the wetland, which may lead to overgrazing. A lack of interest in conservation and general pollution were also mentioned as threats (Figure 4b).

The aim of this study was to understand how stakeholder perceptions (presented above) may contribute to the development of management guidelines for the conservation of heritage resources in the town of Wakkerstroom, Mpumalanga. The interview responses from the WNHA, Working on Fire and Birdlife SA organisations showed that there is no integrated management plan for the conservation of heritage resources. The municipality, as part of the government, is the main body responsible for the management of heritage resources within towns and townships located within the DPKIS Local municipality (Rautenbach, Hart & Naudé 2015) but it has abrogated its responsibility for conservation and management of the wetland to the WNHA, which remains legislatively compliant under the National Environmental Act (Act No. 107 of 1998). Interviews also revealed that there are no ongoing conservation activities or management plans associated with the cultural heritage. The only activity, which the WNHA organises for Heritage Day, is a series of guided walks and information brochures to select buildings. There are several conservation projects conducted by the WNHA, but most of these are carried out on an ad hoc basis and do not form part of any management plan which should be developed using a standard framework of setting objectives, time frames, budgets, monitoring and evaluating planned actions and activities.

In terms of some current management actions for conservation, the WNHA reported conservation projects associated with the wetland including monitoring the number of cattle grazing in the vlei, the amount and removal of litter, the removal of invasive alien plants and limited spraying with herbicide to maintain patch diversity. Fires occur frequently in Wakkerstroom. Fire management in the wetland is also undertaken by the WNHA working closely with the Working on Fire organisation. In winter months, fire-breaks prevent the spread of fires and fire damage. Patch burning in the vlei will be monitored to limit the dominance of Phragmites australis.

Interviews also revealed that the WNHA and BirdLife SA are advocating the wetland be declared a Ramsar site. The Ramsar Convention is targeted towards promoting the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world. In South Africa, a wetland can however only be included as a Ramsar Site when declared a protected area under The National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act (Act No. 57 of 2003). Currently, the wetland is classified as an informally protected area, not yet formally protected by legislation (SANBI 2020).